These materials are intended to supplement the textbook and not replace it.

There are a number of fundamental issues with the development of an Information System (IS) that must be understood before the Analysis and Design activities can be undertaken with any degree of success. This topic highlights some of these issues.

Key Components of an IS

There are three important components of any IS, and the relationships between these components need to be understood:
· Data – raw facts used to describe people, objects and events (information is generally considered to be data that has been processed for human consumption).
· Data Flow – collections of data that move through a system and are transformed.
· Processing Logic – the description of the transformation of data in one data flow to data in another data flow.

Two Approaches to IS Development

Traditionally there have been two basic approaches to the development of an IS that are quite separate:

· Process-Oriented – the emphasis is on the flow, use and transformation of data.
· Data-Oriented – the emphasis is on the organization of the data, and separation of the data from the applications that use the data.

Each approach is valid in its own right, however currently it is rare for only one approach to be used as the two approaches complement each other and provide a more complete view of the IS.

Systems Analysis and Design Terms

There are some terms relating to the Systems Analysis and Design (SAD) activities that are important to understand and differentiate:

· Methodologies – comprehensive approaches, usually having a set of clearly defined stages and outputs from those stages that guide SAD teams.
· Techniques – specific processes the SAD teams follow to ensure the outputs are clear, accurate and complete.
· Tools – specific devices, usually automated, that are used to derive the benefits from the techniques covered by the methodology selected for the IS development.

Systems Development Life Cycle

The SDLC is one of the earliest methodologies used by many organizations to develop an IS. The SDLC consists of phases that are an organized way of progressing through the IS development using specific techniques and tools. Outputs from one phase feed into the activities of the next phase. Although the phases appear to be sequential, the development activities are more likely to be iterative. The SDLC phases and their activities should be tailored for each specific IS development.
A large number of SDLC models exist, however all contain minor variations to the break up of the basic cycle of an IS development of initiation, analysis, design and implementation.

System Characteristics

In order to illustrate the definition of a system by its nine characteristics, a model of the University Enrollment System is depicted in the following diagram.

The characteristics of the University Enrollment System (UES) are detailed below:

· Purpose (or Mission) – a reason for the System's existence, the overall goal or function.
The UES exists to facilitate the placement of students in courses.
· Constraints – the limits on what the System can accomplish.
The UES can only place registered students in registered courses.
· Components (or Subsystems) – the single parts or aggregate of parts that make up the System (each can be a System in its own right).
Student Registration, Course Registration, Placement.
· Inter-related Components (or Inter-relationships) – the components depend on one another.
Student must be registered to be placed in a Course; Course must be registered to have Students placed.
· Boundary – the limits of the System separating this System from other systems.
The UES consists of the three components and nothing else.
· Environment – everything outside the Boundary that interacts with the System.
Students, Lecturers.
· Input – the things the system takes from the environment.
Student details, Course details, Student Course preferences.
· Output – the things the system returns to the environment.
Course enrollment details.
· Interfaces – the points where the System meets its environment.
Student Application form, Course Nomination form, Student Enrollment form, Course-Student list.
In order for an IS to be a 'system', the nine characteristics must exist and be able to be clearly defined.

The Skills of the Systems Analyst

There are four groups of skills (covering a number of areas) that are required by systems analysts to perform their functions:
· Analytical – systems thinking; organizational knowledge; problem identification; problem analyzing and solving.
· Technical – computer; networks; databases; operating systems; Internet; programming languages.
· Management – resource management; project management; risk management; change management.
· Interpersonal – communication skills; ability to work in a team; group facilitation; managing expectations.

Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) Tools

CASE Tools are automated tools that support the IS development process. There are a number of CASE Tools on the market, each providing support for particular aspects of the SDLC.

Levels of CASE Tools
There are three categories of CASE Tools:

· Upper CASE Tools – support the early phases of the SDLC: project identification and selection, initiation and planning, analysis and design.
· Lower CASE Tools – support the lower end of the SDLC: implementation and maintenance.
· Cross Life Cycle CASE Tools – support particular activities that occur across multiple phases of the SDLC.

Some CASE Tools provide support in all three areas and therefore fit into each category.

Use of CASE Tools
In deciding to use a CASE Tool within an IS development, an organization usually has a number of objectives such as reducing the development time and improving the documentation quality. Some of the objectives may be achieved with the adoption of a carefully selected CASE Tool; however, this is not always the case. There are additional factors the affect the use of CASE Tools such as the high cost in acquiring the tool, or training staff in the use of the tool.

Components of CASE Tools
CASE Tools are made up of a number of components, depending upon their category and complexity. The six components are Diagramming Tools, Analysis Tools, Repository, Code Generators, Form and Report Generators and Documentation Generators

Diagramming Tools
Diagramming Tools are the fundamental and indispensable component of a CASE Tool. Systems can be modeled in a graphical form using Diagramming Tools. Outputs from techniques such as data modeling and process modeling can generally be produced more quickly with a CASE Tool than by hand.

Analysis Tools
Analysis Tools are the component of a CASE Tool that differentiates a CASE Tool from a graphics package. With Analysis Tools a diagram can be automatically checked for inconsistencies, incomplete aspects or incorrect specifications using rules applicable to that diagram. This component is particularly useful when combining the work of several systems analysts.

Repository
The Repository is the component of a CASE Tool that contains all the information on the diagrams generated by the CASE Tool. The Repository generally consists of two segments, the Information Repository and Data Dictionary. The Information Repository contains details of all the models and parts of the models, whilst the Data Dictionary contains the details of each data item in each part of each model.

Code Generators
Code Generators are the component of a CASE Tool that automatically generates program and database definition code directly from the models stored in the Information Repository. The Code Generators use standard language conventions so that the code produced can be compiled and executed on a number of platforms.

Form and Report Generators
Form and Report Generators are the component of a CASE Tool that supports the creation of forms and reports using the data and corresponding details stored in the Information Repository. This component is useful for allowing users to see how the system “looks and feels”.

Documentation Generators
Documentation Generators are the component of a CASE Tool that automatically generates user and technical documentation directly from the details in the Information Repository. Generally the Documentation Generators produce documentation in a basic form that allows tailoring of the documents to suit local standards.

There are two major activities that normally occur prior to any analysis being conducted in the development of an Information System (IS). This topic addresses the two activities of identification and selection of a project and initiation and planning of the selected project.

Pre-Analysis Activities Outputs
List of Projects for Development. A ranked list of projects suitable for development is normally produced from the activity of identifying and selecting a project. As resources permit the project at the top of the list is then initiated and planned.

Baseline Project Plan. A Baseline Project Plan contains the best estimate of a project’s scope, benefits, costs, risks, and resource requirements. The Baseline Project Plan is dynamic and it should evolve as the project evolves.
Statement of Work. The Statement of Work describes what the project will deliver and outlines at a high level all the work required to complete the project. The Statement of Work can be used in contractual agreements.

Project Identification and Selection Process
The Project Identification and Selection process consists of three sequential steps:

· Identify potential projects – all levels within an organization can identify projects.
· Classify and rank projects – the relative merits of the identified projects are assessed using a number of evaluation criteria.
· Select projects for development – the decision on the selection of a project involves a number of factors and results in a variety of outcomes ranging from acceptance of the project to rejection of the project.

Planning
Planning affects the quality of the decisions made during the Project Identification and Selection process. There are two types of planning to be considered Corporate Strategic Planning and Information Systems Planning.

Corporate Strategic Planning
Corporate Strategic Planning can be simplified into a three-step process:

· Understand the current enterprise – know where you are; this is usually reflected in a mission statement.
· Determine where the enterprise is to be in the future – know where you want to go; this is usually reflected in objective statements.
· Develop a strategic plan to guide the transition from current to future – how to get there; this is the method for achieving the objectives.

Information Systems Planning
Information Systems Planning can similarly be simplified into a three-step process:

· Describe the current situation – identify functions, processes, data and information systems.
· Describe the target situation – record desired functions, processes, data and information systems.
· Develop a transition strategy and plan – focus on differences between lists, and determine projects required to move from current to target situation.

Planning Activities in Parallel
Each step in the Corporate Strategic Planning and Information Systems Planning processes are highly inter-related and the two activities are equally important in ensuring that the Project Initiation and Selection activity is effective.

Project Initiation and Planning
The aim of the Project Initiation and Planning process is to transform a vague system request into a tangible project description. The process consists of two sequential steps:

· Project Initiation – includes all activities that assist in organizing a team to undertake the Project Planning step.
· Project Planning – involves the definition of activities and all work needed to conduct each activity in order to complete the project.

Assessing Project Feasibility
An essential activity in Project Planning is assessing the feasibility of the project. Even though a project appears on the List of Projects for Development, it may not be justifiable given the normal resource constraints.  The specifics of a project will dictate which feasibility factors are most important in the assessment of that particular project.

Economic Feasibility
One of the most significant feasibility factors for most projects is the economic feasibility of the project. Will the financial benefits of the project outweigh the financial costs? In answering this question both tangible and intangible benefits and costs must be considered and then a cost/benefit analysis performed.

Technical Feasibility
Another significant feasibility factor for most projects is the technical feasibility of the project. Will the proposed system be able to be constructed by the organization? In answering this question a risk assessment is generally conducted covering four primary factors: project size, project structure, development group's experience and user group's experience.

Other Feasibility Categories
There exist a number of other feasibility factors that need to be considered in addition to the economic and technical feasibility factors:

· Operational – the likelihood that the project will attain its desired objectives.
· Schedule – the likelihood that all time frames and completion dates can be met.
· Legal and Contractual – the potential ramifications of the system on existing laws.
· Political – the views of the proposed system held by key stockholders.

Baseline Project Plan – Outline
All information gathered during the Project Initiation and Planning process is organized into the Baseline Project Plan. While the structure of the Baseline Project Plan is organization and project dependent, it will generally contain four sections:

· Introduction – consisting of a brief overview of the entire document, executive summaries of scope, feasibility, resources and schedules and most importantly a recommended course of action.
· System Description – consisting of high-level presentations of alternative solutions and a description of the selected solution including input information, tasks performed and output information.
· Feasibility Assessment – consisting of justifications, discussions and descriptions of all feasibility factors.
· Management Issues – consisting of issues unique to the project.

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